Prehistoric and Early Kingdoms
Archaeology shows Cambodia’s lands were settled long before the Angkor era. Pottery dating to about 4000 BCE indicates farming villages in what is now Cambodia . By the late Bronze Age (1st millennium BCE) Khmer speakers were building circular earthworks and cultivating rice and livestock . In historic times (1st–6th CE) the lower Mekong delta saw the rise of Funan, an Indianized kingdom famous for its irrigation and Hindu temples . Funan’s successor, Chenla (6th–9th centuries), was a Khmer-ruled state based north of Funan. These early states adopted Sanskrit learning, Hinduism and Buddhism via trade with India and China, setting the stage for the great Angkor civilization.
- Early settlements: Archaeologists have found Khmer Neolithic sites and Hoabinhian stone tool layers in caves like Laang Spean (Battambang) dating back tens of thousands of years (to ~70,000 BP). By about 4000 BCE sedentary rice-growing communities built wooden stilt houses and raised pigs and buffalo .
- Funan (1st–6th c. CE): Mentioned in Chinese chronicles, Funan’s kings in the Mekong Delta sponsored canals and temples (often to Shiva) and traded with India and Rome . Its capital (near modern Takéo) was cosmopolitan, importing Hindu ideas.
- Chenla (6th–9th c. CE): A more purely Khmer polity arose as Funan declined. Chenla’s kings continued the Indian cultural fusion and expanded northward. By the 8th century the Khmer state consolidated power across present-day Cambodia and Thailand, preparing the way for Angkor.
Rise of the Khmer Empire (Angkorian Period)
802 CE is traditionally marked as the founding of the Khmer (Angkor) Empire. In that year Prince Jayavarman II (of Funanese-Khmer lineage) proclaimed himself universal monarch at Mahendraparvata (on Phnom Kulen) and assumed the Hindu titles of devaraja (god-king) and chakravartin . He overthrew foreign domination (he had been held in “Java”/Srivijaya) and unified Khmer principalities into a self-aware kingdom (Kambujadesa). Jayavarman II established the cult of the divine king that defined Angkorian polity . Over the 9th–10th centuries his successors built up the new capital region called Yasodharapura (near modern Siem Reap), surrounded by massive reservoirs (barays) and stone temples.
By the 11th century the Khmer Empire vastly exceeded its predecessors in size and power . King Suryavarman I (r.1004–1050) and Indravarman I (r.877–c.890) extended Khmer control into what is now Thailand and Laos, and established grand monuments made of stone (the first being the pyramid “temple mountain” at Roluos) . At its height the Angkor state ruled most of mainland Southeast Asia; its kings were Hindu and Buddhist patrons who claimed divine ancestry.
Key Angkorian Rulers and Dates
- 802 CE: Jayavarman II is consecrated king at Indrapura, marking the empire’s birth .
- 877–c.890: Indravarman I builds the West Baray reservoir and Bakong temple mountain .
- Early 12th c.: Suryavarman II (r.1113–c.1150) reunifies rivals, repels Champa, and embarks on building Angkor Wat .
- 1181–c.1220: Jayavarman VII reigns; following Cham invasions he makes Buddhism (Mahayana) the state religion and erects the Bayon and Angkor Thom city .
Cultural and Architectural Achievements
Angkor Wat, built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II, is the most famous legacy of the Khmer Empire. It remains the world’s largest religious monument, covering 400 acres, and its galleries of bas-reliefs illustrate Hindu epics . The Khmer adapted Hindu and Buddhist cosmology in stone – for example, Angkor Wat’s five towers symbolize Mount Meru, the mythic home of the gods . Thousands of carved apsaras (celestial dancers) adorn the walls, reflecting the empire’s artistic sophistication . Jayavarman VII later built Bayon temple at Angkor Thom, famous for its serene faces carved on 54 towers, and dozens of provincial shrines along new roads. The sheer scale of 11th–13th century Angkor – with its canals, roads, city walls and hospitals – marks the Khmer as great city-builders.
Khmer culture blended Hinduism and Buddhism: early kings worshipped Shiva, Vishnu or the Buddha as royal protectors. Notably, Jayavarman VII (1181–c.1220) made Mahayana Buddhism the state faith, liberally endowing temples and creating a welfare-minded “Buddhist kingdom” of rest-houses and hospitals . By the late 13th century most ordinary Cambodians had adopted Theravada Buddhism , a peaceful form that eventually eclipsed the older temple cults. This enduring Buddhist tradition is why Cambodia today remains majority Theravada, while preserving the Hindu-inspired monuments of Angkor.
Angkor Thom’s Bayon temple (built ~1200 CE) is a highlight of Khmer architecture. Under King Jayavarman VII, the empire reached its greatest extent and built monumental civic works. In just 30 years Jayavarman VII created a new capital city, Angkor Thom, which scholars estimate held up to a million inhabitants at its peak . The Bayon (center of Angkor Thom) features 200 smiling stone faces and stands as a Buddhist temple-mountain. These projects required vast labor and organization, testifying to the empire’s wealth and religious devotion.
Decline of the Khmer Empire
After the reign of Jayavarman VII (died ~1220), Angkor’s expansion faltered. Subsequent kings erected few new temples . Over the 13th–14th centuries, the state began to contract under multiple pressures. Theravada Buddhism’s rise may have undermined the old Brahmin (Hindu priestly) hierarchy and patronage system . Environmental stress is also cited; scholars think repeated droughts and floods might have damaged Angkor’s complex irrigation and rice fields. Most critically, new Thai (Tai) kingdoms in the west, notably Ayutthaya (founded 1351), grew strong and drew off former Khmer vassals.
By the mid-15th century the Khmer empire was clearly in collapse . In 1431 an Ayutthayan army sacked Angkor, which was soon largely abandoned. The Khmer capital then moved to Lovek and eventually Phnom Penh. Cambodia was reduced to a small monarchy tributary to its neighbors. In later centuries the once-mighty civilization of Angkor survived only in ruins and folk memory, until rediscovered by Western explorers in the 19th century.
French Colonial Era (1863–1953)
For four centuries after Angkor’s fall, Cambodia struggled under Siamese and Vietnamese suzerainty. Seeking a protector, in 1863 King Norodom signed a treaty with France . France stationed residents in Phnom Penh and handled Cambodia’s foreign policy. Siam (Thailand) relinquished Cambodia’s western provinces to the French protectorate. By 1887 Cambodia was part of French Indochina, alongside Vietnam and later Laos.
French rule (1863–1953) modernized some aspects of Cambodian life. The colonial government built roads, a railroad, schools and a medical system, though investment was far smaller than in Vietnam. Notably, French archeologists and conservators excavated and restored Angkor’s temples, deciphering inscriptions and rekindling Khmer pride in their heritage . Meanwhile, the French kept the monarchy in place. Kings Norodom (r.1860–1904) and Sisowath (r.1904–1927) largely cooperated with colonial rule. By World War II a young Norodom Sihanouk (b.1922, grandson of Monivong) was king under the French. Cambodia’s common people remained rural and Buddhist, and direct French cultural impact was relatively light .
Path to Independence (1950s–1960s)
After World War II the drive for self-rule accelerated. Sihanouk formed a political movement (the Sangkum) and negotiated with France. On November 9, 1953, Cambodia formally gained independence from France . King Norodom Sihanouk became the popular unifying figure of the newly sovereign Kingdom of Cambodia. (He abdicated in 1960 in favor of his father to enter politics as prime minister, but remained the power behind the throne.)
The 1950s and 1960s under Sihanouk are often called a golden age. Cambodia pursued a neutral foreign policy amid Cold War tensions . Sihanouk balanced relations with China, the USSR and the West, declining most U.S. military aid to preserve independence . The economy grew, culture flourished, and Angkor Wat was chosen as a national symbol (even appearing on the flag upon independence). However, Cambodia’s stability was precarious, as the neighboring Vietnam War began to spill over into its territory by the late 1960s.
Khmer Rouge Era (1970–1979)
Cambodia’s 1970s crisis was rooted in civil war and revolution. In 1970, while Sihanouk was abroad, his military chief General Lon Nol (with U.S. backing) deposed him in a coup. The new “Khmer Republic” aligned with the U.S. against North Vietnam. This turmoil drove peasants toward the insurgent Khmer Rouge guerrillas, who had long fought a Maoist insurgency in the countryside. Bombing of eastern Cambodia by the U.S. further destabilized the nation.
- April 1975: Khmer Rouge forces under Pol Pot capture Phnom Penh. They immediately evacuate cities and rename the country Democratic Kampuchea. Pol Pot (Saloth Sar) declares Year Zero and begins a radical program of agrarian communism.
- 1975–1979: The regime’s policies (forced labor in communes, abolishing money and religion) lead to catastrophic loss of life. Modern institutions and elites are targeted. An estimated 1.5–2 million Cambodians (roughly 20–25% of the population) died from executions, starvation and disease . This period is now known as the Cambodian Genocide.
- Vietnamese invasion (December 1978): In response to border attacks, Vietnam invades and topples the Khmer Rouge government in early 1979 . Pol Pot flees to the jungle. Vietnam installs a pro-Hanoi government (the People’s Republic of Kampuchea), while remnants of the Khmer Rouge continue guerrilla warfare from refugee camps.
The Khmer Rouge era was thus a devastating rupture in Cambodian history. It destroyed much of the educated class and uprooted society. When historians tally the dead and suffering of Pol Pot’s regime, they cite up to three million killed and a nation traumatized .
Recovery and Modern Cambodia (1980s–Present)
With Vietnamese help, Cambodia slowly rebuilt from 1979 onward. The 1980s saw bloody guerrilla warfare between the new government (backed by Vietnam) and remaining Khmer Rouge and royalist factions. In 1989 Vietnam withdrew its troops under international pressure.
In 1991, the Paris Peace Agreements brought all Cambodian factions to the table. The UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) was deployed to organize elections and restore peace . 1993 elections were held under UN supervision. The result was a coalition government: Sihanouk returned as King, and former Khmer Rouge comrade Hun Sen became one of two prime ministers (sharing power with Sihanouk’s son Prince Ranariddh) . Cambodia adopted a new constitution establishing a constitutional monarchy and multiparty politics.
Nonetheless, stability was fragile. The Khmer Rouge finally abandoned politics after Pol Pot’s death in 1998 and declared disbandment in 1999. The CPP consolidated control, and in practice Hun Sen became the dominant leader (eventually sole prime minister). Cambodia joined ASEAN in 1999, ending decades of isolation .
Since then Cambodia has pursued economic development and greater regional integration. Politically, it remains a de facto one-party state: Hun Sen’s Cambodian People’s Party (CPP) has won every election, and opposition parties have been marginalized. Hun Sen himself ruled as prime minister from 1985 until 2023 – one of the world’s longest-serving leaders. In August 2023 he stepped down and handed the premiership to his son, Hun Manet , signaling a generational shift but continuity of CPP rule.
Today Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy under King Norodom Sihamoni (son of Sihanouk). The nation continues to recover from its tragic 20th-century history. Its economy has grown, and Angkor’s legacy draws tourism. However, challenges remain: strongman rule, human rights issues, and managing historical memory (including ongoing Khmer Rouge trials). Nonetheless, modern Cambodians draw pride from their Khmer heritage—from Angkor’s stone cities to the resilience shown in rebuilding after genocide.
Key Turning Points and Figures: These include Jayavarman II’s founding of the empire in 802 CE ; King Suryavarman II (builders of Angkor Wat in the early 1100s) and Jayavarman VII (Bayon, Angkor Thom, late 1100s) as cultural zenith ; the sack of Angkor by Ayutthaya in 1431 ; King Norodom’s 1863 treaty with France and the 1953 independence under King Sihanouk ; the 1975–1979 Khmer Rouge genocide led by Pol Pot ; and the 1991–93 UN-backed peace process ending decades of war . Each of these marks a dramatic change in Cambodia’s long history.
Sources: Authoritative histories and encyclopedias (Britannica, Asia Society) and Cambodia experts were consulted to ensure accuracy .