Etymology (Ancient Greek). The term askēsis (ἄσκησις) in ancient Greek literally meant “exercise,” “training,” or “practice.” It derives from the verb askein (“to exercise, train, cultivate”) . Originally it referred to athletic training or craft practice, not self-denial . For example, the Catholic Encyclopedia notes that askēsis signified physical training (bodybuilding, athletics) and was later applied to spiritual exercise in the early Church . As a noun, askēsis (ὀἄσκησις) conveys disciplined practice; the related adjective askētikós meant “rigorously self-disciplined.” Thomas Merton likewise emphasizes that asceticism comes from Greek askein: “to adorn, to prepare by labor… training – spiritual training” , applying to physical, moral, and religious life.
Figure: Stones in a flowing stream – an image evoking the endurance and simplicity at the heart of askēsis (Greek exercise/training) .
Classical Philosophy (Hellenistic Schools). In Hellenistic philosophy, askēsis referred to systematic self-training for virtue and wisdom. The Cynics pioneered this: Diogenes of Sinope and Antisthenes practiced extreme asceticism (living in a tub, owning almost nothing) to demonstrate self-sufficiency and integrity. As one scholar notes, “among the Cynics asceticism was used to foster traditional virtues such as self-control, frugality, and the ability to endure hardship” . Stoics adopted a milder form of askēsis as a preparatory discipline. Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius speak of philosophical exercises (askēseis) to cultivate an inner citadel of reason. Finn summarizes: for Stoics, “asceticism — practiced in moderation — was useful for training young men in virtue” . Musonius Rufus explicitly viewed askēsis as essential to the philosophical life: Hadot notes Musonius as seeing physical and mental exercises (“body and soul” training) as combining to shape “the true person: free, strong, and independent” . In Plato and Neoplatonism, askēsis took metaphysical form: Hadot argues Plato’s dialectical training was a spiritual exercise demanding “self-transformation” , and Plotinus taught philosophy as an inner askēsis leading through mystical practice to union with the divine . Thus in classical philosophy askēsis evolved from literal athletic training to a broader regimen (fasting, meditation, ethical discipline) aimed at transforming character .
Ancient Religious Traditions. The concept of askēsis also appears in other pre-Christian cultures as ascetic discipline. For example, in Stoicism and Platonism (already noted), and even in Eastern thought: Buddhist and Hindu traditions practiced “tapas” or austerities analogous to askēsis (e.g. meditation, renunciation) to purify the mind and prepare for enlightenment . In Judaism, Philo and other Hellenistic thinkers describe fasting, ritual purity, and self-denial as preparing one for closeness to God .
Askesis in Early Christianity and Monasticism
Early Christians adopted askēsis as the term for spiritual training. The Greek fathers equated askēsis with ascetic practices: the Catholic Encyclopedia notes early Christian writers used askēsis to denote the practice of spiritual things (virtue, prayer) . Christian ascetical theology likewise defines asceticism as disciplined self-denial for spiritual purpose . In practice, this meant fasting, celibacy, poverty, and solitude. The “Desert Fathers” (like Antony the Great and Pachomius) and later monastics in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria exemplified askēsis by renouncing worldly life. As one account describes, Christian asceticism became a system of practices to “master the lower nature and gain freedom from disordered passions” through self-discipline . Church writers from Clement of Alexandria and Origen on emphasized voluntary poverty and continence as an ideal Christian life . By the 4th–5th centuries, Eastern and Western monastic rules (Basil, Benedict, Cassian) codified askēsis into scheduled prayer, fasting and labor.
Figure: A Buddhist monk in meditation under a Bodhi tree – an example of askēsis (spiritual exercise) in a non-Christian tradition .
The influence of askēsis extended beyond Christianity. Eastern Orthodoxy developed hesychasm, a practice of inner stillness and continuous prayer, essentially an “inner askēsis” of attention. In medieval Catholicism, mystics like John of the Cross and Teresa of Ávila wrote of ascetic “spiritual exercises.” In Islam, Sufi mystics likewise practiced disciplined retreats (khalwa) and self-scrutiny akin to askēsis. In modern secular life, even non-religious movements – from Stoic-inspired self-help to the minimalist lifestyle – echo asketic themes of voluntary simplicity and self-control .
Notable Practitioners and Thinkers
Throughout history many figures exemplify askēsis:
- Ancient Greek thinkers: Diogenes the Cynic famously lived austerely (in a tub) to test society’s values; Plato and Socrates engaged in mental askēsis (e.g. Socrates’ famed “practice of death” meditation ); Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius assigned daily self-examinations and voluntary hardships as training.
- Hellenistic Stoics: Musonius Rufus insisted on physical endurance and ethical discipline as necessary for philosophy .
- Neo-Platonists: Plotinus and Porphyry advocated renouncing bodily desires to ascend toward the One .
- Christian ascetics: Desert Fathers (e.g. St. Antony, Pachomius, St. Basil) and later monks like St. Benedict (who institutionalized balanced ascetic practice) lived out askēsis. Scholastics like Thomas Aquinas treated ascetic life as spiritual training. Mystics (Catherine of Siena, Ignatius Loyola with his Spiritual Exercises) viewed disciplined practice of prayer and virtue as askēsis.
- Modern philosophers: Pierre Hadot highlighted “spiritual exercises” in philosophy, reviving askēsis as a subject . Friedrich Nietzsche critically examined the “ascetic ideal” in works like On the Genealogy of Morals. Michel Foucault studied askēsis in antiquity; Edward McGushin’s Foucault’s Askesis (2007) explores how Foucault treated Greek philosophy as a practice of self-formation (“the work of self-formation that the Greeks called askēsis”) . Contemporary thinkers (e.g. Massimo Pigliucci, Julia Kristeva) continue to discuss asketic themes in secular terms.
The table below summarizes interpretations of askēsis across key figures and traditions:
| Thinker/Tradition | Interpretation of Askēsis (Self-Discipline) |
| Cynicism (Diogenes, Antisthenes) | Rigorous austerity: living simply (in poverty/ exposure), self-sufficiency, endurance training – as a means to live “according to nature” and test conventions . |
| Stoicism (Epictetus, Marcus, Musonius) | Moderate self-control and physical discipline; voluntary discomfort to build resilience; exercises of thought (premeditation of hardships, self-examination) to cultivate virtue . |
| Platonism/Neoplatonism (Plato, Plotinus) | Dialectical and contemplative training; “exercises of death” (meletē thanatou); inner ascent to the divine through moral/philosophical meditation . |
| Early Christianity | Spiritual asceticism: fasting, prayer, celibacy, poverty, obedience – practices aimed at purifying the soul and imitating Christ and martyrs . |
| Eastern Orthodoxy (Hesychasm) | Inner stillness and continuous prayer (Jesus Prayer); disciplined silence and bodily asceticism for achieving theosis (union with God). |
| Buddhist Monasticism | Mindfulness and meditation retreats; ethical precepts and physical austerities as training for enlightenment (e.g. rigorous meditation under the Bodhi tree). |
| Modern Minimalism/Self-Help | Voluntary simplicity, decluttering, disciplined routines; focus on self-mastery and mental clarity through minimizing desires . |
| Neo-ascetic thinkers (Foucault, Nietzsche) | Foucault: studied askēsis as care of the self and self-transformation (philosophy as life practice) . Nietzsche: analyzed the “ascetic ideal” critically (morality born of self-denial). |
Askesis Today: Philosophy, Psychology, Lifestyle
In modern times askēsis has been reframed in secular and therapeutic terms. Stoicism has gained popularity as a “philosophy of resilience”: practices like daily journaling, negative visualization, and voluntary hardship (e.g. cold showers) echo ancient askēseis as self-discipline exercises. Cognitive-behavioral therapy, influenced by Stoicism, encourages examination of impressions (an internal askēsis) to attain mental equilibrium. Minimalist and “simple living” movements apply asketic ideas: deliberately limiting possessions and pleasures to gain focus and freedom. A recent article observes that contemporary ascetic impulses manifest in health and wellness trends – strict diets, intense fitness regimens, and ethical commitments – aimed at “proper power over oneself” . Similarly, mindfulness and meditation practices can be seen as personal askēsis of attention and self-awareness .
Secular writers note that today’s “ascetic” acts (from digital detoxes to minimal consumption) are often seen as countercultural or “quiet revolutions” against consumerism . For example, a 2023 article argues that minimalism in diet and lifestyle is itself a modern form of askēsis: “Minimalism in food, reasonable consumption, [a] measured lifestyle – all this can be a manifestation of asceticism” . In short, askēsis endures as the art of discipline – whether in religion, philosophy, psychology or everyday life – of training oneself through practice.
Key Works and Further Reading
Scholars have studied askēsis across history. Important works include:
- Richard Finn, Asceticism in the Graeco-Roman World (Cambridge 2009) – A concise survey of ancient ascetic practices. Finn traces how pagan philosophers (Cynics, Stoics, Pythagoreans) and Jewish traditions exercised self-discipline, and how early Christian monasticism arose within this context . (For example, Finn highlights Cynic/Stoic training and the debate over ascetic practices in early Judaism .)
- Pierre Hadot, Philosophy as a Way of Life (1995) – Although not solely about askēsis, Hadot argues that ancient philosophy itself was a regimen of spiritual exercises. He documents exercises from Socrates through the Neoplatonists and early Christians, and their decline in modern philosophy.
- Michel Foucault’s late lectures (published as The Care of the Self and The Use of Pleasure) – Foucault frames Greco-Roman philosophical schools as techniques of the self (i.e. askēseis). Edward McGushin’s Foucault’s Askesis (2007) shows how Foucault viewed philosophical study as a practice of self-transformation: “the work of self-formation that the Greeks called askēsis” .
- Edward B. McGushin, Foucault’s Askesis: An Introduction to the Philosophical Life (2007) – A detailed study of Foucault’s reading of Plato, Epictetus and others, and his idea of philosophy as an exercise in “care of the self,” countering modern power. It emphasizes how ancient askēseis informed Foucault’s own ethics .
- Modern edited volumes – For example, the chapter “Askesis and Asceticism” in Shakespeare and Virtue (2023) explores the Christian heritage of ascetic practices as modes of virtuous life . (This highlights askēsis bridging self and society, showing continued scholarly interest.)
These sources (and many more) document that askēsis – originally simple “training” – has been a lifelong exercise for thinkers and seekers. Today the word evokes rigorous self-discipline, whether in ancient gymnasiums, monastic cells, or personal development routines. It remains a concept of lasting relevance in philosophy, religion, and the science of living well .
Sources: Authoritative histories and analyses of askesis and asceticism . Each section above cites relevant scholarly or primary sources as indicated.