Politics
: A Comprehensive Summary
Aristotle saw the polis (city-state) as a natural community aimed at human flourishing. He famously declared that man is “by nature a political animal,” meaning only in a polis can people fully realize their potential . In Politics I Aristotle argues that the city emerges not merely for subsistence, but “for the sake of living well” . The highest end of the state is the virtue and happiness of its citizens , so politics must cultivate moral character. This teleological view – that every city aims at “the good with the most authority” (the good life) – ties political order to ethical excellence and inspires the notion of civic virtue and the common good.
Constitutions and Forms of Government
Aristotle categorizes governments by who rules (one, few, or many) and whose interest they serve . He identifies three correct regimes – rule by one (monarchy), by a few (aristocracy), or by the many (polity, a constitutional government) – all serving the common good . Each has a deviant counterpart that serves private interests: tyranny (corrupt monarchy), oligarchy (corrupt aristocracy), and democracy (corrupt polity) . Aristotle ranks these forms: a virtuous monarchy is best, followed by aristocracy and polity, while democracy, oligarchy and especially tyranny are flawed . In his view, only governments that respect law and justice can endure, whereas self‑interested regimes breed faction and instability.
| Form of Government | Definition | Aristotle’s Evaluation |
| Monarchy | One ruler governing in the common interest | Highest ideal form if the ruler is virtuous ; vulnerable to corruption into tyranny |
| Aristocracy | Few (virtuous) rulers governing in common interest | Second-best form; good when truly virtuous, otherwise lapses into oligarchy |
| Polity (Constitutional) | Many (moderate majority) ruling in the common interest | Best practical mixed regime ; balances rich and poor to promote stability |
| Tyranny | One ruler governing for personal gain | Worst form; the corruption of monarchy |
| Oligarchy | Few (wealthy) rulers for their own interests | Corrupt aristocracy; unstable because it ignores the many |
| Democracy | Many (the poor majority) ruling for their own interests | Corrupt form of polity; seen by Aristotle as least bad of the flawed forms |
Table 1. Aristotle’s six constitution types, with definitions and his judgment of each .
Citizenship, Virtue, and Justice
For Aristotle, the citizen is one who rules and is ruled in turn within the regime . Citizens are partners in the city’s highest good . Ideally, in a virtuous state “the citizen … chooses being ruled and ruling with a view to a life in accordance with virtue” . In practice, a good citizen supports the laws and aims of the constitution, even if that requires actions different from those of a private “good man” . Aristotle stresses that not everyone qualifies as a citizen: only free, mature males with leisure for public life count. Those burdened by manual labor or lacking education (whom he calls “vulgar” or slaves) cannot pursue virtue and so are excluded from full citizenship .
Justice for Aristotle means giving each person his due according to virtue and merit . He insists “equals should be treated equally” and unequals unequally . Thus honors and power should reflect merit. In government this principle underlies his regime typology: correct constitutions distribute political roles proportionally to contributors to the common good, whereas corrupt regimes hand power to those who merely dominate (rich or poor). Aristotle also champions the rule of law, famously observing that law – reason without passion – is preferable to rule by men subject to appetite . Overall, Politics links ethics to politics: a regime is deemed good if it makes citizens morally excellent, embodying virtues like courage, justice and prudence .
The Ideal State and the Middle Class
Aristotle distinguishes between the best attainable constitution and the ideal constitution. His practical ideal is a polity that mixes democratic and oligarchic elements . Such a regime shares power widely but prevents either rich or poor from overrunning the other. For example, a polity might pay citizens of modest means for public service and fine the wealthy who shirk civic duty, so that both rich and poor serve the city . In practice he saw few true polities; extreme democracies or oligarchies inevitably tilt toward tyranny .
A key to stability is a strong middle class. Aristotle argues that moderate wealth is the “best of all” fortunes, because middling people more readily obey reason . The very rich tend to become arrogant, and the very poor resentful . By contrast, a large middle class unites society: its members are similar and willing to “rule and be ruled in turn” . Where “a multitude of middling persons predominates,” a lasting polity can exist . He even says it is the “greatest good fortune” for a city to have enough middle-class citizens to prevent both oligarchic and democratic excess .
Aristotle’s ideal city (described in Politics VII) is a community of virtuous, leisured citizens. Its citizens are happy and noble because they live rightly; the city educates them in true virtue and reason . Practical features matter too: the population should be large enough to be self-sufficient but small enough that people know one another . The territory must allow for a comfortable life in peace yet be easily defended . Crucially, most city residents will not be citizens: farmers, artisans, and slaves exist to sustain the citizens. “Slaves and laborers are part of possessions… but the city is a partnership of similar persons” pursuing the best life . Thus in the best state all non-citizen work is done to support the citizenry’s leisure and excellence.
Social Structure: Slavery and Property
Aristotle accepts the social hierarchies of his time. He argues that some people are “slaves by nature” who benefit from rational masters, forming a kind of natural partnership . Masters and slaves each need the other “for the sake of preservation” . However, Aristotle is cautious: he admits it is “extremely difficult” to identify true natural slaves, so not all servitude is just . (Modern readers find this deeply problematic, but Aristotle’s position historically influenced discussions of natural law and hierarchy.) He similarly claims the male-female relationship is naturally hierarchical – a view now widely rejected – holding that in households the rational husband should rule, the wife lacking full authority of reason .
On property, Aristotle breaks from Plato. He insists private ownership is natural: people take better care of what is theirs. Plato’s suggestion that spouses and possessions be held in common, Aristotle argues, would weaken personal bonds and civic affection . He notes that communal property leads to neglect and dispute (“Men give most attention to their own property…less to what is communal”) . At the same time, Aristotle decries the pursuit of wealth for its own sake. He distinguishes the natural economy (household management to meet needs) from chrematistics (unbounded money-making) . Unlimited accumulation (“usury”) is “not natural,” he says, because it seeks endless wealth and undermines the good life . Instead, wealth should serve virtue (e.g. generosity requires having something to give), and lawgivers should moderate desires by education rather than abolish property outright .
Education and Civic Formation
Education of youth is a core theme. Aristotle insists the state must direct schooling, since all citizens share the city’s single purpose. “There is a single end for the city…education must be one and the same for all,” he declares . The curriculum blends practical and cultural studies to cultivate virtue: training includes gymnastics and simple military exercises, reading and writing, and music or poetry chosen to inspire good character . The aim is to produce law-abiding, courageous, and moderate citizens who act “nobly” and support the constitution’s ideals . In this way Politics treats education not as a private matter but as a public mission – the means by which the polis molds virtuous human beings.
Teleology, Naturalism, and Ethics in Politics
Aristotle’s Politics rests on key philosophical principles from his biology and metaphysics. He views the polis teleologically: every political community exists for an end or telos. As he writes, “every city-state…aims at some good,” and the highest of these is human happiness achieved through virtue . Thus law and constitution should be crafted to foster the excellent life. Aristotle also applies his naturalism: humans naturally come together to speak, reason, and establish justice. Unlike other animals, only people can devise laws and pursue justice through speech . The city, for Aristotle, is a natural outgrowth of human nature (“by nature the city is prior to the individual” ). Within nature’s order there are differences in ability and virtue, which justify certain roles (though determining “natural” status, e.g. slavery, is tricky).
Ethics permeates his political theory: rulers should practice phronesis (practical wisdom) and moral virtue, and policies aim to habituate citizens to excellence . Justice – fairness under law – is supreme among virtues, for it makes the community possible. As noted, Aristotle sees law as impersonal reason governing the state . This blend of ends-driven (teleological), nature-aligned, and virtue-centered thinking makes Aristotle’s political science unique: it treats politics as a moral science, where understanding human nature and purpose is key to designing good regimes.
Influence on Later Political Thought
Aristotle’s Politics cast a long shadow. In the medieval era Christian, Islamic, and Jewish scholars eagerly studied it. By the 13th century William of Moerbeke’s Latin translation brought Aristotle to Western Europe, where thinkers like Thomas Aquinas treated him as compatible with theology . Aquinas in particular Christianized Aristotle’s insight that man is a “political animal,” and he preserved Aristotle’s distinction of good vs corrupt regimes (monarchy/aristocracy/polity vs tyranny/oligarchy/democracy) in his own writings . Even royal and civic writers (e.g. Marsilius of Padua) invoked Aristotle’s mixed government and common good concepts to debate papal vs civil authority .
During the Renaissance and Enlightenment Aristotle’s ideas were revived and transformed. Machiavelli and Shakespeare reflect Aristotelian categories in their treatment of tyranny and governance, and British constitutionalists drew on the idea of a mixed regime (combining monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements). In the modern era, philosophers across the spectrum have found inspiration in Politics. As the Stanford Encyclopedia notes, Aristotle “has continued to influence thinkers up to the present” – from conservatives (e.g. Leo Strauss) and communitarian critics (Alasdair MacIntyre, Michael Sandel) to liberal scholars (Martha Nussbaum, William Galston) and libertarians . His balanced blend of idealism and realism on topics like law, civic virtue, and revolution continues to animate debates .
Conclusion
Aristotle’s Politics remains a rich wellspring of political wisdom. By making virtue the heart of the state and insisting governments serve the common good, it offers an inspiring vision of citizenship. Its insights – that law must temper power, that a strong middle class holds society together, that education forms character – still resonate today. As both an empirical investigator of constitutions and a philosopher of human purpose, Aristotle shows politics as a noble art. His legacy is a reminder that the highest aim of government is to cultivate “the most authoritative good” – the happiness of virtuous citizens . In studying Politics, we are motivated to seek governments that enable eudaimonia (flourishing) for all, anchoring political life in ethics and human nature as Aristotle envisioned.
Sources: Authoritative analyses of Aristotle’s Politics and related scholarship . (Page and line numbers refer to Bekker edition citations within these sources.)