Yes, ancient Greeks and Romans did eat liver, along with a variety of other organ meats. Offal, including liver, was a common part of the diet in many ancient cultures, including those of Greece and Rome. These societies highly valued the nutritional benefits of organ meats, which were often considered more prestigious than muscle meats. The liver, being rich in nutrients, was especially prized.

For example, in ancient Rome, the liver was not only a dietary staple but also played a significant role in religious and divinatory practices, such as the practice of haruspicy, where priests would examine the livers of sacrificed animals to interpret omens. This underscores the importance of the liver in both the cultural and dietary practices of the time.

In terms of consumption, the liver would be prepared in various ways, including roasting, boiling, and incorporation into dishes similar to the pâtés and terrines we see today. Recipes from ancient texts, such as those by Apicius in Rome, suggest that liver was often cooked with rich seasonings, herbs, and sauces to enhance its flavor.

Apicius recipe

One of the most famous collections of Roman cuisine is attributed to Apicius, from the work titled “De Re Coquinaria” (On the Subject of Cooking), a compilation of Roman culinary recipes that likely dates back to the late 4th or early 5th century AD. While the work is named after the famed gourmet Marcus Gavius Apicius of the 1st century AD, it’s uncertain if he was the author or if the book was simply dedicated to him due to his renowned love of luxury and fine dining.

The recipes in “De Re Coquinaria” cover a broad range of dishes, including those for meats, vegetables, and desserts, showcasing the complexity and richness of Roman cuisine. Unfortunately, specific recipes for liver from Apicius are not detailed in the surviving texts in a way that directly mirrors modern recipe formats, but there are references to dishes that would have included liver as an ingredient.

One such recipe that might incorporate liver is for the preparation of “minutal,” a kind of minced meat dish which could include liver among other meats. Here is a general interpretation of how ancient Romans might prepare a dish that includes liver, inspired by the style of Apicius:

Roman-Style Liver Recipe (Inspired by Apicius)

Ingredients:

• 1 lb liver (chicken, pork, or calf)
• Olive oil
• 1 small onion, finely chopped
• A few dates, chopped
• 1 tsp honey
• 2 tbsp garum (fish sauce can be a modern substitute)
• Wine (preferably a sweet white wine)
• Fresh herbs (such as coriander, mint, and parsley), chopped
• Salt and pepper to taste

Instructions:

1. Prepare the Liver: Clean the liver and cut it into small pieces or thin slices.
2. Cook the Onion: In a pan, heat a little olive oil and sauté the onion until it becomes soft.
3. Add the Liver: Add the liver pieces to the pan with the onion and cook until the liver is browned but still tender.
4. Flavor the Dish: Add the chopped dates, honey, a splash of wine, and garum (or fish sauce) to the pan. Stir well to combine all the ingredients.
5. Simmer: Let the mixture simmer gently for a few minutes so that the flavors meld together. If the mixture seems too dry, add a little more wine or water.
6. Herbs and Seasoning: Season with salt and pepper. Add the chopped fresh herbs and stir into the dish.
7. Serve: Serve the dish warm, accompanied by bread or as part of a more extensive Roman meal.

This recipe is an adaptation meant to give a taste of Roman cooking with available ingredients and modern cooking techniques. The original Roman cuisine would have varied based on region, availability of ingredients, and individual preferences.

When did liver become less prized. And when did flesh meat become more prized than organ meats

The shift in the valuation of liver and organ meats relative to muscle meats (flesh meat) is not tied to a single historical moment but rather reflects a gradual change in dietary preferences influenced by various cultural, economic, and agricultural developments over centuries. Several key factors contributed to this shift:

Economic Development and Livestock Breeding

As agricultural practices and livestock breeding techniques improved, particularly during and after the Middle Ages in Europe, it became easier and more economical to produce larger quantities of muscle meat. This increase in availability made muscle meats more accessible to a broader segment of the population, enhancing their popularity and status.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution and the subsequent rise of urbanization dramatically changed food production and consumption patterns. As people moved to cities, there was a disconnect from traditional farming and butchery practices. The burgeoning middle class developed new dietary preferences that favored muscle meats, which were seen as more convenient and versatile. This period also saw the rise of meatpacking industries, which further facilitated the distribution and consumption of muscle meats.

Changing Perceptions of Health and Nutrition

In the 19th and 20th centuries, evolving understandings of nutrition and health began to influence dietary choices. Muscle meats were often promoted for their high protein content, while organ meats, despite their nutritional density, became less favored in many Western diets. This was due, in part, to changing tastes and misconceptions about the health impacts of consuming organ meats.

Cultural Shifts

Cultural perceptions also played a significant role. In many Western societies, as living standards rose, there was a tendency to view organ meats as inferior or as reminders of harder times when no part of an animal could be wasted. This contrasted with attitudes in other parts of the world, where organ meats continued to be highly valued for their flavor, texture, and nutritional value.

Contemporary Times

It’s worth noting that in recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in nose-to-tail eating and sustainable food practices, which includes a renewed appreciation for organ meats, including liver. Chefs and food enthusiasts are rediscovering these ingredients, integrating them into modern dishes that highlight their rich flavors and nutritional benefits.

This shift away from liver and organ meats as prized components of the diet in favor of muscle meats is a complex phenomenon that reflects broader trends in society, economy, and culture. The exact timing and reasons for these changes vary by region and are influenced by a multitude of factors over the centuries.

Haruspicy?

Haruspicy, also known as hepatoscopy, is an ancient practice of divination that involves examining the livers of sacrificed animals to predict future events or divine the will of the gods. This practice was particularly prevalent among the ancient Mesopotamians, Etruscans, and Romans. The liver was considered a vital organ that held clues to the divine plan, making haruspicy an important religious and ceremonial practice.

Haruspices (the practitioners of haruspicy) would study the appearance, size, shape, color, and texture of the liver, along with any marks or abnormalities, to interpret omens and make predictions. These interpretations were based on a detailed body of knowledge that was passed down through generations of haruspices, often codified in manuals and texts.

In Roman society, haruspicy was an important aspect of religious life and was used to guide decisions ranging from matters of state to personal inquiries. Despite its association with earlier civilizations like the Etruscans, the Romans adopted haruspicy and integrated it into their own religious practices, although it was sometimes viewed with skepticism by some Roman intellectuals.

The practice of haruspicy reflects the ancient belief in the interconnectedness of the divine, natural, and human worlds, where even the organs of sacrificed animals could provide insights into the workings of the cosmos and the intentions of the gods.

Why the liver?

The liver was chosen for haruspicy, or hepatoscopy, due to several key beliefs and qualities attributed to it in ancient cultures:

1. Central Organ in Ancient Physiology: The liver was considered one of the most vital organs in the body, associated with the production of blood and the maintenance of life. This centrality made it a logical focus for divination, as it was believed to be closely connected to the vitality and health of the whole organism.
2. Regenerative Properties: The liver is known for its remarkable ability to regenerate, a fact that did not escape the notice of ancient peoples. This regenerative capacity may have imbued the liver with symbolic significance, representing renewal, life, and the favor of the gods.
3. Complexity and Structure: The liver’s complex structure, with its distinctive lobes and unique texture, provided a detailed “map” that could be interpreted by trained practitioners. The variations in its appearance were rich in symbolic potential and could be read in numerous ways to divine omens.
4. Symbolic Significance: In many ancient cultures, the liver was believed to be the seat of life or the soul. This made it an organ of profound symbolic importance, suitable for use in rituals aimed at understanding the will of the gods or the future.
5. Precedent and Tradition: The use of the liver for divinatory purposes also had a long-standing precedent, especially in Mesopotamian and Etruscan cultures. The Romans, influenced by the Etruscans, inherited and adapted these practices, embedding them into their own religious and social fabric.
6. Practical Reasons: The liver’s size and accessibility during animal sacrifices made it a practical choice for examination. Unlike other internal organs, the liver could be easily removed and examined in a detailed manner, facilitating the divinatory process.

The selection of the liver for divination reflects a combination of physiological, symbolic, and practical considerations. Its central role in the body, coupled with its unique properties, made it an ideal focus for seeking insights into the divine will and the unfolding of future events.